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Volume 13-- 2001 Berry Notes is written by Sonia Schloemann except where other contributors are noted. Publication is funded in part by the UMass Extension Agroecology Program and grower subscriptions. A text version can be e-mailed to you if you contact Sonia Schloemann. Please cite this source if reprinting information. |
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February/March 2001, Vol. 13, Nos. 2/3 IN This Issue
Strawberries
Brambles
Blueberries
Grapes
Currants and Gooseberries
Changes in Small Fruit Pesticides
General
Message from the Editor Pruning is the dominant activity for berry growers at this time of year. Deep snow has hampered our pruning efforts in many areas of the state, but should be thawing soon allowing us to step up our pruning pace. This issue of Berry Notes includes information on pruning practices for our berry crops. Check out the UMass Extension Fruit Team's web site. Go to www.umass.edu/fruitadvisor and find Small Fruit information including Massachusetts Berry Notes, Upcoming Meetings, NE Small Fruit Pest Management Guide, and Small Fruit IPM Guidelines. We are especially happy to have the New England Small Fruit Pest Management Guide available on-line. We will post updated amendments on pesticide recommendations that arise after the publication of the original guide. We hope to soon be adding a series of Small Fruit Fact Sheets, too. The site also provides useful links to things like Pesticide Licensing Information, Chemical Labels, Weather Forecasts and the Department of Food and Agriculture. Rescheduled New England Strawberry School. The Strawberry School that was to be held on March 6, 2001 was cancelled due to the big snow storm. It has been rescheduled to March 29, 2001. See detailed program, registration info, and directions in the Meetings section. Errata: In the last issue of Berry Notes an article appeared on the calculation of growing degree days. The calculations referred to šC when they should have read šF. Strawberries Straw Removal on Strawberries -- Bruce Bordelon, Purdue University Studies done in Illinois indicate that proper time to remove straw from matted row strawberries is when the bare soil temperature at 4 inches averages about 40-43šF. According to data from the Purdue Applied Meteorology Group bare soil temperatures are averaging in the high 30s for most areas of the state. Soil temperatures should rise steadily through the month of March and should reach the low 40s over the next two weeks. Once temperatures reach this range the straw should be raked off the tops of the beds and into the row middles. Leaving some straw on top of the beds for plants to grow up through provides a clean surface for fruit. Straw should be removed from strawberry beds before the plants grow enough to cause yellowing of foliage. Allowing the leaves to become etiolated (yellowed with long petioles) due to late straw removal can reduce yields by as much as 25%. However, uncovering the plants early may promote early growth and increase chances of frost or freeze injury. This is a judgment call that growers have to make for themselves. After the straw is removed the frost protection irrigation equipment should be set up. (Source: Facts for Fancy Fruit 2001-01 March 14, 2001) Trickle Irrigation Tips for Strawberries -- David Handley, Univ. of Maine In recent years many strawberry growers in the northeast have begun using trickle irrigation in strawberry beds. While trickle is considered an essential component of growing strawberries in a raised bed plastic mulch system, it is also becoming more popular for matted row system production. In the past, the conventional wisdom has been that since overhead (sprinkler) irrigation is necessary for frost control in strawberries, there's no need to install a trickle system as well. However, several factors have now led growers away from this view, and trickle irrigation is more often seen in the fields. Some of the reasons for making the investment in trickle include the relatively low cost of a system compared to other types of irrigation, less labor moving pipes around, less water needed to meet the plants needs, and the ability to fertilize through the system. During the growing season, strawberries can use 15,000 gallons of water per acre per week for optimum growth. During the fruit development period, this amount can triple. If nature doesn't provide this amount of water, the plants are likely to have slower growth and lower yields. Supplying this much water to strawberry fields with overhead irrigation presents the problems of having to move pipe from field to field, having a dependable source of high volumes of good water, and a big enough pump to move it. The overhead system also wets the entire plant surface which, while god for frost control, can encourage the development of diseases, and requires lots of water to get sufficient moisture down into the soil to the roots. Trickle irrigation systems require relatively low volumes of water. For example, a source providing as little as 10 gallons per minute can irrigate 1/2 acre of strawberries per day. A 50 gallon per minute source can irrigate up to three acres per day. This means that smaller sources of water, such as wells, can be used to irrigate, and a much smaller pump can be used than is required for overhead irrigation. Because less water is used with trickle, growers can also consider using municipal supplies, if other sources are not available. The water is brought to a field from a pump through plastic pipe ranging in diameter from one inch to six inch (11/2 to 21/2 is common). Larger diameter pipe requires higher pressure (larger pump, more water) to push liquid through. Elevation will also effect water pressure. For every 2.4 feet of elevation the water has to climb, one pound per square inch (psi) of pressure is lost. This pipe is usually buried and outlets are set up around the field according to the planting scheme. A lateral pipe is attached to the outlet and runs along the surface, perpendicular to the strawberry rows. This pipe is usually flexible (e.g., "lay-flat") so that it can be run over by equipment and customers. Trickle tape is attached to the lateral pipe so that a line is running down the center of each row of strawberries. This line can be buried about 21/2 inches below the soil surface prior to planting, or laid on the surface. While burying the lines can add to the cost of installation, it reduces problems with the lines being damaged by animals, people and machinery. Most trickle tape is designed to adjust the water pressure for even distribution along the length of the row, and can even compensate for changes in elevation through the field, provided they are not extreme. The amount of water pressure available will determine how much of a field
can be irrigated a tone time. If lots of pressure is available, whole
fields may be irrigated at once. If the pressure is weaker, then the field
must be divided up accordingly and one section is watered at a time. But
this can be accomplished with the simple switching of a few valves, rather
than disassembling and moving lots of pipes. Growers who have adopted trickle irrigation in strawberries have generally been pleased with the amount of labor it has saved them. It has also made them lore likely to water the plants when they need it, resulting in improved growth and yields. Trickle irrigation technology has become less expensive and easier to use over the years, and now may be the time to consider a system for your strawberry fields. (Source: Univ. of Maine Vegetable & Berry News, No. 3, March 5, 2001) Brambles Pruning Brambles -- Bruce Bordelon, Purdue University This is a good time to finish pruning summer-bearing brambles. Last years fruited canes should be removed now if they were not removed last summer or fall. Remove weak or spindly floricanes and thin to 2-4 canes per foot of row. Laterals on blackberries and black and purple raspberries should be trimmed back to about 2/3 to 3/4 of their original length to promote flowering on strong wood. Red raspberry canes can be tipped if desired, but should not be tipped more than 1/4 of the cane length. If the planting is trellised, the canes should be tied to the wires now before growth starts. Fall bearing types should be mowed to the ground before growth begins for a fall-only harvest, or remove the fruited tips if a summer and fall harvest is desired. Remove and destroy the prunings to help prevent anthracnose. (Source: Facts for Fancy Fruit 2001-01 March 14, 2001) High Tunnel Production of Primocane-Bearing Raspberries -- Kathy Demchak, PennState University High tunnel production of primocane-bearing raspberries offers potential increases in yield and fruit quality as compared to field production, based on research conducted during the past year at Penn State. Until more research in conducted, this growing system should be tried on a limited basis. This growing system may be of particular value is where a premium market exists for high quality fruit produced with little or no pesticide use. High tunnel production is also advantageous where a longer growing season is needed to allow more complete harvest of the fall-bearing raspberry crop. This lengthening the growing season appears to be the main advantage, more so than advancement of the harvest season. Yield obtained per linear foot of row during the planting year was nearly equal to that from a mature 3-year-old field planting. Plants are planted in spring. If tissue-cultured plants are used, they should be planted when it expected that temperatures will no longer drop below freezing in the high tunnel. Plants may be grown either in the ground with trickle irrigation, or in containers using media as for greenhouse production. If plants are grown in the ground, the high tunnel will need to be dedicated to raspberry production, unless the tunnel is moveable. Containers offer the advantage that a different crop can be grown within the high tunnel early in the year, after which the raspberry plants can be moved in. The raspberry plants should be in the tunnel for protection from rainfall during the time from bloom through harvest to obtain the advantage of increased gray mold control without fungicides. While extensive evaluation of cultivar suitability has not been done, characteristics desired may be somewhat different than for field production. For example, if a market that commands a choice price is to be targeted, size and flavor may be of more importance than resistance to foliar diseases because plant foliage is kept dry. Both Autumn Britten and Heritage performed well, with Autumn Britten fruiting about a month earlier than Heritage. Generally, pesticides that are labeled for greenhouse raspberry production can be used in high tunnels. However, no pesticides were found to be necessary on research plantings, and again, a higher price may be obtained for pesticide-free fruit. Differences in pest complexes should be expected from those encountered in field production, specifically:
Other problems that were encountered were sunscald of the fruit when the temperatures become too high, and magnesium deficiency in soil-less media. This was mitigated by an application of Epsom salts. (Source: The Vegetable and Small Fruit Gazette, February, 2001, Volume 5, No. 2) Raspberry Anthracnose -- Paul Pecknold, Purdue University The most important spray you will apply this season for control of anthracnose on brambles is the delayed dormant spray of lime sulfur. DON'T FORGET IT! Liquid lime- sulfur at 20 gallons per acre should be applied when new leaves are exposed 1/4 to 3/4 inches; if you are late in your application and don't spray until a few leaves have unfolded, cut the rate to 10 gallons per acre. NOTE: There is greater risk of lime-sulfur burn, when applied at this later time. (Source: Facts for Fancy Fruit 2001-01 March 14, 2001) Blueberries It's Pruning Time! -- Ben Fuqua, University of Missouri Pruning is one of the more important cultural practices in producing high yields of quality blueberries. Highbush blueberry plants need some pruning each year; the extent depending on plant age, plant vigor, and overall growth habit of the plant. The goals in pruning blueberries are to remove diseased, damaged, and unproductive canes, promote new cane growth, and balance fruit production with vegetative growth. While pruning reduces the number of fruit buds, and ultimately the number of berries per plant, the remaining berries will be larger and will ripen slightly earlier than fruit on un-pruned plants. Pruning also "opens up" the center of the bush, permitting better light penetration throughout the plant canopy, thereby increasing the sweetness of the ripened fruit. Pruning can be done any time during the dormant season, however the best time in Missouri is during January, February, and March. Diseased and damaged canes are more easily identified at this time, the chances of freezing injury at the newly cut surfaces are lessened, the absence of leaves makes it easier to properly shape and thin the plant, and the colder temperatures reduce the potential of spreading diseases from one plant to another. Pruning of plants after growth starts should be avoided as developing buds can be easily injured. Flower buds of highbush blueberries are located near the tip of new growth. Flower buds are initiated in late summer and early fall and bear fruit the following year. Under good growing conditions every new shoot, including tiny lateral shoots, will set one or more flower buds. There is a direct relationship between the size of fruiting wood and the size of fruit produced. Larger berries are produced on thicker wood, while weak, twiggy growth produces small fruit, factors to keep in mind when pruning blueberry plants. Pruning Tips Young Plants: Only limited pruning is required on young, non-bearing plants. The emphasis during the early years should be on developing a good, strong plant framework, not on production. Flower buds should be rubbed off by hand for the first two years to encourage maximum vegetative growth. Pruning should be restricted to removing diseased, broken, and low-growing canes. Three to five of the strongest canes should be allowed to develop for each year of age. Plants of low vigor may need three or even four years of vegetative growth before being allowed to set fruit. Producing Plants: The extent of pruning needed to maintain healthy, high-producing blueberry plants will increase with age. During the first two or three fruiting seasons, developing a strong, healthy plant should still be emphasized. All plants should be pruned to remove weak, twiggy growth, diseased, broken, and low-growing (within 12" of mulched surface) canes and branches. The larger and stronger canes should be permitted to set an increasing amount of fruit each year. In some cases, tip pruning (removal of a few fruit buds) may be necessary to balance the fruit load with vegetative growth. While the rate of plant growth varies greatly from one planting to another, healthy, vigorous blueberry bushes should have approximately 20 good, strong canes by the end of the 5th growing season. As plants become older, additional pruning will be required. First, remove all diseased, broken, and low-growing canes and branches as done in previous years. Secondly, remove a few of the older, less vigorous canes as older canes tend to produce smaller berries and lower yields than younger ones. Older canes also inhibit the development and growth of new canes from the base or crown of the plant. Since the strongest canes originate from below ground level, all old canes need to be cut off at or slightly below ground level. Cutting canes off too high leaves stubs or stumps that will produce weak twiggy growth. Stubs/stumps also rot and become sources of disease inoculum. Most older bushes require additional thinning of branches and removal of twiggy growth from the center of the plant. Opening up the center of the plant allows better light penetration and air movement, two important factors in improving fruit ripening and curtailing the potential for diseases. The overall growth habits of the different varieties will dictate the type and extent of detailed pruning needed. Some varieties, such as Bluetta, Blueray, and Bluecrop produce a large number of canes each year from the crown of the plant, thereby necessitating removal of some of the new, but weaker canes. On the other hand, Coville, Lateblue and Berkeley produce most of their new growth off of older, existing canes. These varieties require more thinning and removal of branches from the interior of the plant. Ideally, all plants should have an equal number of canes from one to eight years in age. This balance can be accomplished by continually removing approximately 15-20% of the older canes each year. Complete Rejuvenation: In some plantings, a complete rejuvenation of plants (all canes removed) may be warranted. When all old canes are cut off at ground level, a large number of new canes are usually produced that first summer. Do not fertilize these plants. Select six to ten of the most vigorous canes and remove the rest. Return to a regular pruning schedule the next year by removing 15-20% of the older canes. Eventually, these plants will become more productive, although from one to two years of berry production are normally lost by this process. Use good sanitation: Good sanitation practices are essential in all cultural operations, but are especially critical when pruning. All pruning tools, loppers, hand pruners, saws, etc. should be thoroughly cleaned and sharpened so that neat, smooth cuts that callus rapidly can be made. Older canes should be cut as close to the crown as possible; branches should be removed as close to the main cane as possible. Avoid leaving short stubby wood. Frequent dipping of pruning tools into a disinfecting solution of 20% bleach and/or 70% alcohol will help prevent spreading of diseases to adjacent plants. Removal and destruction of all pruned material will also help prevent the buildup of inoculum in the planting. Conclusion: Annual pruning of highbush blueberry plants is required for sustained production of high quality berries. Weather conditions, birds, and other uncontrollable factors that affected blueberry yields last year should not influence the extent of pruning this year. Good pruning practices must be followed from year to year to maintain the vigor and productivity of blueberry bushes. (Source: The Berry Basket, Volume 3, No. 4, Winter 2000/2001) Commercial Pollinators for 2001 The University of Maine Cooperative Extension has published their updated list of commercial pollinators. This list contains contact information for 50 commercial providers and is appropriate for growers throughout New England. It is available as Fact Sheet No. 224, Bulletin No. 2040. Please call me at 413-545-4347 if you want a copy of this list. See the article near the end of this newsletter for more information on the value of pollinators in small fruits. Grapes Pruning Grapes: -- Bruce Bordelon, Purdue University March is the most common month for pruning grapes. The threat of extremely cold weather has passed and we can evaluate any winter injury to vines that may have occurred. By April buds will begin to swell and it is important that pruning is completed prior to bud swell to avoid damage to the tender buds. Winter injury in grapes this year should be minimal. However, there is likely to be some damage on cold-tender varieties. You should assess bud damage prior to pruning so that adjustments in the balanced pruning formula can be made based on the amount of bud loss. Typically, if less than 25% of the buds are damaged you can prune normally. If 25-40% of the buds are damaged then you'll want to adjust the number of buds retained accordingly. For example, if 40% of the buds are damaged then 60% are live. If you need 40 buds per vine for the proper crop load then you'll have to leave 68 buds to end up with 40 primary shoots. To determine how to adjust the bud number multiply the inverse of the % live buds (1/.60) times the desired number of buds (1/.60=1.7; 1.7 x 40 = 68 buds). If more than 40% of the buds are damaged then you'll probably want to do minimal pruning now and wait until after budbreak to determine where live buds occur in order to have an adequate number for balancing the vines. Spring freeze damage can also be a significant economic problem for grape growers. A technique called long pruning or double pruning helps avoid spring frost and freeze damage, especially on varieties that tend to bud out early. The procedure utilizes the apical dominance of buds on the cane. The first buds to begin growing are those on the tip of the cane, while buds closer to the base begin growth later. This type of pruning is only applicable to spur or no-tie training systems. To perform long pruning, select canes to be used for fruiting spurs during the normal pruning practice, but leave those canes long, with 10-15 more buds than desired. Spurs are normally pruned to 5 or 6 nodes for fruiting, but if they are not cut back, then the extra buds will help delay the development of the desired basal 5-6 buds, which helps avoid frost injury. After the date of the last probable spring freeze has passed, the canes are shortened to the desired length to properly adjust the bud number for the vine. Growth of the basal buds can be delayed by as much as two weeks if weather conditions are favorable. While this procedure requires an extra trip through the vineyard, it can mean the difference between a full crop and little or no crop. (Source: Facts for Fancy Fruit 2001-01 March 14, 2001) Currants and Gooseberries Pruning Currants Similarly to highbush blueberries, there are 3 main goals when pruning
currants: These goals can be achieved by following these practices: Pesticide News Changes in Small Fruit Pesticides -- Adapted from Kathy Demchak, PennState University and David Handley, University of Maine There are a number of changes in labels for small fruits pesticides.
Some of the more notable changes for the upcoming season are: Diazinon, which had been labeled for use on strawberries, no longer is.
Strawberries were deleted from the federal label in February, following
an agreement between the EPA and Syngenta, the manufacturere. All uses
of Diazinon will be phased out by 2004. Confirm 2F and Confirm T/O (tebufenozide, Rohm and Haas) are labeled for use on blueberries and caneberries against some species of leafrollers and gypsy moth, and other pests that vary with the crop. See the label for rates and timings, as these vary with the pest targeted. Savey 50WP (hexythiazox, Gowan) is labeled for two-spotted spider mite control on strawberries. It is effective against the eggs and immature mites, but not adults. This means that it should be applied when mite populations are still low. The rate is 6 oz/acre, and only application can be made per year. The pre-harvest interval is 3 days. (Sources: THE VEGETABLE AND SMALL FRUIT GAZETTE, March, 2001, Volume 5, No. 3 and the University of Maine Vegetable & Berry News, No. 3, March 5, 2001) Neem Products -- Ted W. Gastier, Ohio State University Extension Some growers have expressed interest in Neem-based biological products such as Aza-Direct by Gowan, Neemix 4.5, and Azatin XL Plus by Thermotrilogy Corporation. Extracted from the seed of the neem tree, this insect growth regulator controls targeted insect larvae. When they ingest or come in contact with it, this product interferes with the insect’s ability to molt and shuts off feeding behavior. Affected larvae slowly starve and die at next molt. Neem-based products are formulated for use in: Tree fruits: apples, apricots, cherries (sour, sweet), crabapples, nectarines, peaches, pears, plums, prunes, and quinces. Small fruits: blueberries, caneberries (blackberries, boysenberries, dewberries, elderberries, loganberries, raspberries, youngberries), currants, gooseberries, huckleberries, grapes, strawberries. Be sure to check label for specific crop usage, as there is variability between products. Check out the following web site for more information: http://www.gowanco.com/labels/sec3/azadirectsec3no.pdf
General Efficient Use of Nitrogen Fertilizer in Fruit Plantings -- Eric
Hanson, Michigan State University Efficient use of nitrogen (N) fertilizers can reduce fertilizer bills and the potential for harming water resources. Fruit crops need to absorb certain amounts of N during the season to grow and produce well. This demand can be met efficiently by considering fertilizer application timing, placement, and choice of N fertilizers. Timing: apply after budbreak for most fruit. Application timing should
be in synch with the needs of the crop. Before budbreak, grapevines, tree
fruit and blueberries have no demand and limited ability to absorb N.
Plants begin absorbing significant amounts of N only after leaves begin
emerging, and the demand for N remains high through the period of active
growth. With most of these crops in Michigan, the demand is high from
June through most of August. The goal of fertilizing is to maintain sufficient
N available in the root system throughout this time. Split applications help assure sufficient N is in the root zone throughout the two to three month period of high demand by the crop. Split applications are most important on sandier soils where N leaches most readily. Splitting N applications also provides the option of adjusting rates according to cropping levels. The second application can be reduced or skipped if fruit set is poor due to frost, poor pollination, or lack of bloom. Be efficient with the placement of fertilizer. Fertilizer should also be placed so that it is accessible to the crop. In orchards, efficiency is improved by spreading fertilizer in a broad band beneath the dripline of trees. Banding may provide some benefits in vineyards or blueberry plantings, but this has not been tested. Growers irrigating with trickle systems should consider whether fertigation is a possibility. Fertigation places N directly where most roots are located, and multiple application can easily be applied so that N supply matches the demand of the crop. Research indicates that N rates can be cut in half due to the efficiency of fertigation programs. Considerations for choosing the right N fertilizer. The choice of N fertilizers can also affect efficiency. Fertilizers supply N as ammonium (urea, ammonium sulfate), nitrate (calcium and potassium nitrate) or both ammonium and nitrate (ammonium nitrate). Fertilizers supplying all or part of the N as ammonium (urea, ammonium nitrate) are good choices for early season applications. The ammonium is retained on soil particles and does not leach. Early in the season, when plant demand is lower and soils are cool, ammonium is slowly converted by soil microbes to the mobile nitrate form. Conversion to nitrate accelerates as soils warm and plant demand increases. A limitation of urea is that N may be lost to the atmosphere if granules remain on the soil surface during warm weather. If urea is used later in the season, try to make applications before predicted rains or irrigate after fertilizing. Ammonium nitrate or calcium nitrate are good choices for application later in the season since the nitrate in these products is available immediately. Ammonium sulfate and urea are the best materials for blueberries. (Source: Fruit Crop Advisory Team Alert, Vol. 15, No. 1, March 28, 2000) Berries May Protect Against Cancer and Heart Disease -- Hank Becker, USDA ARS Staff Writer Blueberries, cranberries, huckleberries and related plants have now been found to contain resveratrol, a potential anticancer agent, according to Agricultural Research Service scientists who made the discovery. This new finding from ARS chemist Agnes Rimando at the Natural Products Utilization Research Unit, Oxford, Miss., adds to previous research by other scientists who found that dark-skinned bunch grapes contain resveratrol. Rimando is working with scientists at Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Kentville, Nova Scotia, and the ARS Small Fruit Research Station in Poplarville, Miss. Using chemical identification procedures, the team of scientists measured the resveratrol content of 30 whole fruit samples of blueberry, cranberry, huckleberry and related plants. The samples represented five families and 10 species of Vaccinium fruit. They also measured resveratrol in skin, juice/pulp and seed samples of muscadine grape. Because of its important biological properties, resveratrol (3,5,4-trihydroxystilbene) has been examined extensively in grapes. Studies showed the compound protects the grapes from fungal diseases. It also provides health benefits for consumers by reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease. The compound's anticancer potential warranted its examination in other fruits. The team's studies showed that several fruit samples of Vaccinium contain varying amounts of the compound. Analysis of the extracts of the skin, juice/pulp and seed of muscadine grapes showed that concentration of resveratrol in the skin was highest. Levels in the juice/pulp were much lower than in the skin and seeds. Analysis of more Vaccinium and muscadine samples is continuing. The new data could help build a foundation for increasing resveratrol in those berry and grape crops that are important to many small farmers. Future research goals will include enhancing production of resveratrol in selected species. ARS is the lead scientific research agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. (Source: ARS Research & Information Service, Feb. 27, 2001) Berries Reduce Effects of Tobacco Smoke Carcinogen, OSU Researcher Finds -- Candace Pollock, Associate Editor, OARDC Research Services Certain berries, such as strawberries and raspberries, may do more in the way of preventing diseases than inhibit the development of colon and esophageal cancers. Years of research on strawberries and red and black raspberries have shown that the fruits inhibit the development of those cancers in rats. Now, in collaboration with a scientist from Indiana University, an Ohio State University researcher has discovered that the berries reduce the ability of benzo(a)pyrene, a carcinogen found in tobacco smoke and in the environment, to transform normal cells to cancer cells in the laboratory. The rate of reduction in some cases was as high as 90 percent. Benzo(a)pyrene, formed when gasoline, garbage, or any animal or plant material burns, is carried through the air and water and can affect humans and animals if breathed in or touched. It is most commonly found in coal-, tar- and asphalt-production plants, smoke houses, and municipal trash incinerators and has even been discovered in charcoal-grilled foods and cigarette smoke. Gary Stoner, head of the Laboratory of Cancer Chemoprevention and Etiology at OSU’s James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute, conducted these studies in collaboration with James Klaunig of Indiana University and John Cassady and Nanjun Sun of the OSU College of Pharmacy. Stoner has considered feeding laboratory rats with the methanol extract to see if the lung takes up the berry components in sufficient quantities to protect against cancer induced by benzo(a)pyrene. In previous studies, when whole freeze-dried raspberries and strawberries were fed to rats, they did not protect against benzo(a)pyrene-induced lung cancer. Stoner thinks that the active components in the berries will be more concentrated in the methanol extract and that the extract may be protective. In the meantime, he is conducting studies with Steven Schwartz of the OSU College of Food, Agricultural, and Environmental Sciences to identify the active components in the methanol extract. What exactly do berries do? Well, we know that they inhibit the metabolism of carcinogens so there are fewer mutational events that can lead to cancer. Berries also slow the growth rate of pre-cancerous cells, also reducing the development of cancer,” said Stoner. “Now we are trying to understand how that process occurs and what components contribute to the process.” Ellagic acid, found in berries, has long been considered to be an anti-carcinogenic and anti-mutagenic compound that contributes to cancer inhibition. Stoner, however, is convinced that ellagic acid is not working alone in preventing, halting, or reversing the development of certain cancers. "Berries contain many vitamins, minerals, and phytonutrients that individually have been shown to inhibit cancer," said Stoner. "I think that’s one of the reasons that cancer inhibition cannot be attributed to ellagic acid alone." Phytonutrients, also known as phytochemicals, nutraceuticals, and phytofoods, is the collective term for disease-preventing compounds in fruits and vegetables. Components like limonoids, phytosterols, terpenes, thiols, and glucosinolates may be unfamiliar to the consumer, but scientists are discovering that these nutrients contribute to warding off diseases such as cancer, diabetes, stroke, and osteoporosis. For example, scientists have found that a diet consisting of fruits and vegetables coupled with exercise helps reduce incidences of stomach, lung, mouth, colon and esophageal cancers by 30-40 percent. Scientists and health-organization experts recommend consumers follow the "Five a Day" program of eating at least five servings of fruits and vegetables per day in order to take advantage of the health benefits. A serving size is equivalent to half a cup. (Source: Ohio Fruit ICM News Volume 5, No. 7, March 2, 2001) A Specialized Harvest Cart -- Bob Meyer, Marcia Miquelon, Astrid Newenhouse and Larry Chapman Stooping or kneeling and crawling to harvest salad greens requires a lot of time and energy. Lifting and moving your harvest container many times as you fill it adds to the work load. An alternative is to build a simple cart which allows you to sit and roll while you harvest. This is less tiring for the knees, back, hamstrings, and torso. The cart also holds your harvest container, so it rolls along with you. How does it work? The cart straddles the crop bed or rows, so that the wheels are on the paths between the beds. A seat is mounted low to the ground, between the rear wheels, allowing you to work directly over the bed without stooping. The seat swivels so you can harvest all parts of the bed without twisting your body. Move the cart forward by pushing the rear wheels with your hands, wheelchair fashion, or scoot along with your feet on the ground. Prop your harvest container on the front corner of the cart frame, within easy reach. The front wheel swivels for easy steering. Harvest cart benefits:
Harvest Speed and Posture Analysis Without Cart, With Cart These data arebased on a case study with the same worker performing the same task. Postural analysis was compiled using the Ovaco Work Analysis System. Less soil compaction. Instead of kneeling or walking in the crop row or bed, the cart supports your weight. Your weight, plus the weight of the cart, is transferred through the wheels to the paths between the crops. Improves profits. Cutting harvest time can save labor costs. A typical scenario might be that your labor costs are $7.00 per hour, and you harvest 4 days a week. If you saved 30 minutes per harvest day by using the cart, in 11-18 weeks the cart will have paid for itself. If the harvest cart prevents back or knee pain, you might also save money on medical bills. Where can I get a specialized harvest cart? These types of carts, designed
by Bob Meyer and Hal Bohne of the UW Agricultural Engineering Lab, are
not available in stores or catalogs. We can provide plans for you to make
your own cart from readily available materials. Some welding is required,
which can easily be done by your local welder. Locate a welding shop in
the phone book under welding-custom fabrication. Buy the parts at a hardware
store or from a tool and equipment catalog such as:
Massachusetts County Ag. Facts for Worcester County -- Mass Dept. of Food and Agric. Bureau of Markets Trends: 1974-1997 Farmland Economics & Employment Crops National Rank Worcester County ranks 47th among all counties in the United States for apple production. (Sources: "The Changing Landscape of Massachusetts Agriculture" by David Holm, Daniel Lass and Richard Rogers; New England Agricultural Statistics, 1998 and U.S. Census of Agriculture, 1997 Compiled by: the Massachusetts Department of Food and Agriculture, 251 Causeway Street, Suite 500, Boston, MA 02114, 617-626-1700, www.massdfa.org.)
Price provides income, guides the quantity supplied and demanded, serves as a signal to customers, and transfers ownership. Questions one should ask before determining prices including: How much do the competitors charge? How much are customers willing to pay? Does the product have additional value for which the price may be raised? What is the cost to produce the product? And if you slash prices (below competition), how will you maintain profitability? The most basic element of pricing is to know your costs, including variable costs and fixed costs. Variable costs are cost items directly related to production -- plants, seeds, fertilizer, labor, packaging, etc. Fixed costs are cost items that do not vary with production volume such as rent, taxes, management salaries, and cost of capital. The price of one item should at least cover variable costs in the short run and need to cover both variable and fixed costs in the long run. It is important to establish a gross margin that will cover the total costs of growing and marketing the product and provide a satisfactory profit for the business. Gross margin is the difference between the cost of the product and its selling price.
Assume a direct marketer is selling just five major items from a farm stand. The direct marketer has calculated the gross margin for each product sold using the cost of goods (a cost of production or market wholesale price) and has also estimated the approximate sales for each product as a percent of total sales. The percentage of sales and gross margin for each product are shown below. Contribution to Total Sales and Gross Margin before Price Reduction In this situation, if the direct marketer decided to lower the price on pumpkins as Halloween promotions to meet a lower price by a competitor or to sell out the seasonal stock. If the price reduction resulted in a gross margin of 10 percent (a drop from 30 percent) and stimulated sales to increase to 20 percent of the total (up from 15 percent). The impact of the price reduction on the total sales and profits of the business could be calculated as following: Contribution to Total Sales and Gross Margin after Price Reduction Therefore, the direct marketer could forecast a drop in total gross margin
from 26.50% to 22.65%, or a loss of -3.85% in gross margin. Assuming that
sales for the business averaged $5,000 per week, this would mean a loss
of: $ 5,000 x -3.85% = -$ 192.5. For example: Remember that having the "lowest price in the market" image can't get you higher prices for higher quality products. Having a "value" image is to reach an optimal combination of quality, service, information and price. Price competition in a market situation with multiple similar sellers in one location can cause severe consequences. The following are some pricing strategies for Smart Marketers. Price-lining: Price-lining features products at a limited number of prices, reflecting varying product quality or product lines. This strategy can help smart marketers to sell top quality produce at a premium price and an "economy line", e.g. overripe or smaller fruits. Price-lining can also make shopping easier for consumers and sellers because there are fewer prices to consider and handle. Single-pricing: The single-price strategy charges customers the same price for all items. Items are packaged in different volumes based on the single price they would be sold for. With such a policy the variety of offerings is often limited. The strength is being able to avoid employee error and facilitate the speed of transactions. Also, customers know what to expect. There are no surprises for customers. Loss-leader pricing: A less-than-normal markup or margin on an item is taken to increase customer traffic. The loss-leaders should be well-known, frequently purchased items. The idea is that customers will come to buy the "leaders" and will also purchase regularly priced items. If customers only buy the "loss leaders," the marketer is in trouble. Odd-ending pricing: Odd-ending prices are set just below the dollar figures, such as $1.99 a pound instead of $2.00. Some believe that consumers perceive odd-ending prices to be substantially lower than prices with even-ending. However, it might not be suitable in some markets. For example, in a farmers' market situation, products should be priced in round figures to speed up sales and eliminate problem with change. Quantity discount pricing: A quantity discount is given to encourage customers to buy in larger amounts, such as $2.00 each and three for $5.00. Gross margins should be computed on the quantity prices. Volume pricing: Volume pricing uses the consumers' perception to its advantage, and no real discount is given to customers. Rather than selling a single item for $2.50, two are priced for $4.99 or $5.00. Cumulative pricing: Price discount is given base on the total volume purchased over a period of time. The discount usually increases as the quantity purchased increases. The type of pricing has a promotional impact because it rewards a customer for being a loyal buyer. Trade discount/Promotional allowances: Price is reduced in exchange for marketing services performed by buyers or to compensate buyers for performing promotional services. Cash discount: A discount is given to buyers who pay the bills within a specified period of time to encourage prompt payment. Seasonal discount: This type of discount is used to induce buyers to purchase at the end of the season or during off-season. While the above strategies are widely used and proven effective, smart marketers should not be limited to these strategies. Creative pricing ideas can help you differentiate your products and services. No matter how you price your products, always go back to check it against your bottom-line. Make sure prices for your products reflect your business image and target market and make a profit. Smart pricing can be a good marketing strategy. (Source: Cornell University Smart Marketing Series, March 2001) Pollinators for Small Fruit Crops -- John Avery, University of Missouri In recent years it has become more important for the small farmer/fruit grower to understand pollination and the need for adequate pollination to secure a good crop. With the problem of mites in honeybees and the resulting loss of feral colonies and many hobby beekeeper colonies, the use of rented commercial honeybee colonies for pollination is critical for the production of a good crop. Highbush blueberries are self-fruitful (that is the pollen of the plant can fertilize the flowers of that plant) but do require insect pollination and studies have shown that berries are larger and ripen earlier when pollinated by bees. In order to have a good crop of berries about 80% of the flowers need to be successfully pollinated. The bumblebee is the most efficient pollinator of blueberries. The problem with bumblebees is that their population is low during the early spring when blueberries are in bloom. Early in the spring bumblebee queens have to forage and provision the nest until they can raise a worker crew to support egg-laying. It takes several weeks for the nest to become a good pollination unit, but by then blueberries have already bloomed. In areas with high populations of bumblebees and low acreage of blueberries, bumblebees will do a good job of pollination. It is recommended to have from 1 to 5 honeybee colonies per acre in blueberry plantings for good pollination. This is dependent on the acres of blueberries in the planting and the availability of native pollinators. Here in Missouri most of our blueberry fields are small and native pollinators are relatively abundant. One honeybee colony per acre should be adequate in our case. A few years experience in your area will tell you if there is a need for increasing the numbers of honeybee colonies to obtain a good crop of blueberries. Adequate pollinators will result in a bigger crop, larger berries, sweeter fruit, and earlier harvest of blueberries. Strawberries generally attract pollinators to their flower with an abundance of pollen and nectar. Uniform pollination is required in order for a well developed and even ripening berry to be produced. With small plantings native pollinators will take care of the pollination needs of the crop. With a large acreage planting, or low populations of native pollinators, or cultivars with a low attraction to bees, there may be a need for honeybee colonies to provide adequate pollination of the crop. It is easy for the grower to determine the need for honeybees in his field. As the first flowers start to drop their petals the grower should do a random check of the fruit for adequate pollination. If the pistils are uniformly dark on the fruit then pollination was adequate but if there are many yellow white fresh looking pistils then pollination was inadequate. The grower then may want to move in honeybee colonies to insure a good crop of well-developed fruit. Recommendations range from one colony per 2-4 acres to 2 colonies per acre. As a general rule one colony per acre is a good starting point for the small to medium acreage planting of strawberries. The brambles, which consist of blackberries and raspberries, are highly attractive to insects for pollination. Generally there is no need for extra pollinators in the brambles. If a grower has a large planting or is in an area with row crops where insecticide spraying is common then honeybees may be needed to insure good pollination of the crop. One colony per acre should be adequate for the brambles. There are other crops grown by small fruit growers, which can benefit from bee pollination. Growers who may want to try the hardy kiwi fruit should consider the need for bees to pollinate the crop. The vegetable crops and pumpkins will need bee pollination for best production. Generally if native pollinators are abundant then honeybee colonies may not be needed, but if misshapen fruit or lower production than anticipated occurs, one colony per acre of crop may help to insure a good crop. As the acreage of a crop increases the need for more colonies per acre should be considered. When there is a need for honeybee colonies to pollinate a crop the grower needs to have an idea of the strength of the colonies he is renting. In Missouri, where a small number of colonies is needed by the grower, it is important that each colony be at optimum strength. The honeybee colony will vary in size throughout the year. The lowest point of strength will occur in late January or early February at between 10000 and 15000 workers. As the colony expands for the upcoming season the population will rise until it peaks in June at between 50000 and 60000 workers. The time of year the crop is in bloom will determine the size of the colony a grower should expect for the pollination of the crop. Most beekeepers will strive to have a colony growing and at optimum strength for the given time of the year. For the early blooming fruit crops such as peaches colony strength should be close to 25000 workers or about 4 frames of brood with 6 or 7 frames of bees. By the time blueberries are blooming colonies should be stronger with 5 to 6 frames of brood and 8-10 frames of bees. By late May colonies should be approaching full size with 10 to 12 frames of brood and bees covering all frames. The grower can ask the beekeeper to open the hives or a sampling of hives to visually check the strength of the colonies he is renting. As a preliminary check the grower can visually inspect the hives on a warm and still day without having to open the colony. On a day with the temperature above 60 F but preferably above 65F and the wind below 10 mph the grower can stand to the side of the colony (not in front) and count the bees coming into the hive. A good pollinating unit will have in excess of 100 bees per minute returning to the hive with about one third carrying pollen. A good set of colonies should have uniform flight from each hive. With the loss of hobby beekeepers and feral honeybees the importance of commercial beekeepers and their honeybees in pollination is important to the growers of fruits and/or vegetables. Growers need to know the basics of good pollination and what to expect from rented honeybee colonies. In Missouri, growers are generally small and there is generally good habitat for native species of bees to survive but rented honeybee colonies can insure the best crop possible. Growers need to learn about pollination and the pollinators of their crops. (Source: The Berry Basket, Volume 3, No. 4, Winter 2000/2001)
NEW ENGLAND STRAWBERRY SCHOOL - has been re-scheduled to MARCH 29, 2001. Ramada Inn, White River Junction VT (802-295-3000). From I-91 take exit 11, heading east. Turn at the MacDonalds onto Sykes Ave. Turn right in 1/8 mile. The Ramada is straight ahead. To pre-register send $20 per person, payable to UVM, to: Ann Hazelrigg, Hills Building, Burlington VT 05405-0082. (If you registered for the canceled meeting please register again, sorry for the inconvenience.) Walk-in registration will be $25. Registration includes lunch. 4 Recertification credits will be available for pesticide applicators. Have questions or need special accommodations? Call Vern Grubinger or Ann Hazelrigg 802-656-0493. 8:30 Registration |
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